Psychology Vocabulary

Operant Conditioning

/ˈɒp(ə)r(ə)nt kənˈdɪʃ(ə)nɪŋ/

A learning process through which behaviour is shaped by its consequences — reinforcement increases behaviour, punishment decreases it.

Confirmation Bias

/ˌkɒnfəˈmeɪʃ(ə)n ˈbaɪəs/

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs.

Cognitive Dissonance

/ˈkɒɡnɪtɪv ˈdɪs(ə)nəns/

The mental discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously.

Attribution

/ˌætrɪˈbjuːʃ(ə)n/

The process by which individuals explain the causes of behaviour and events, either to internal (dispositional) or external (situational) factors.

Self-Efficacy

/self ˈefɪkəsi/

An individual's belief in their own capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific outcomes.

Working Memory

/ˈwɜːkɪŋ ˈmem(ə)ri/

A cognitive system with limited capacity that temporarily holds and manipulates information for use in complex tasks.

Ecological Validity

/ˌiːkəˈlɒdʒɪk(ə)l vəˈlɪdɪti/

The extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to real-world settings and everyday behaviour.

Schema

/ˈskiːmə/

A cognitive framework or mental structure that helps organise and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experience.

Demand Characteristics

/dɪˈmɑːnd ˌkærɪktəˈrɪstɪks/

Cues in an experimental situation that lead participants to guess the study's purpose and modify their behaviour accordingly.

Attachment Theory

/əˈtætʃm(ə)nt ˈθɪəri/

A theory of close relationships proposing that early bonds between an infant and caregiver shape emotional and social development across the lifespan.

Priming

/ˈpraɪmɪŋ/

The phenomenon whereby exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent related stimulus, often below conscious awareness.

Social Loafing

/ˈsəʊʃ(ə)l ˈləʊfɪŋ/

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively than when working individually.

Longitudinal Study

/ˌlɒŋɡɪˈtjuːdɪn(ə)l ˈstʌdi/

A research design that collects data from the same participants repeatedly over an extended period to examine change over time.

Theory of Mind

/ˈθɪəri əv maɪnd/

The ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intentions, desires, knowledge — to oneself and others, and to understand that others' mental states differ from one's own.

Replication Crisis

/ˌreplɪˈkeɪʃ(ə)n ˈkraɪsɪs/

An ongoing methodological crisis in which many published psychological findings fail to replicate when independently re-tested.